It results from significant exposure to noxious stimuli, increased oxidative stress (most commonly due to cigarette smoke) as well as by increased release of reactive oxygen species by inflammatory cells. The most significant complication is acute exacerbation of COPD.ĬOPD is characterized by chronic airway inflammation and tissue destruction.

COPD can cause complications such as pulmonary hypertension or respiratory failure. Individuals with advanced disease may benefit from oxygen supplementation and/or noninvasive ventilation. Treatment options mainly consist of short-acting and long-acting bronchodilators and inhaled corticosteroids. Imaging studies are helpful in assessing disease severity and the extent of possible complications. Diagnosis is primarily based on clinical presentation and pulmonary function tests ( PFTs), which typically show a decreased ratio of forced expiratory volume ( FEV) to forced vital capacity ( FVC). Clinical features include dyspnea and productive cough and, in later stages, tachypnea, tachycardia, and cyanosis. These changes cause a loss of diffusion area, which can lead to inadequate oxygen absorption ( hypoxemia) and CO 2 release ( hypercapnia). COPD begins with chronic airway inflammation, which usually progresses to emphysema, a condition that is characterized by irreversible bronchial narrowing and alveolar hyperinflation. Some individuals are genetically predisposed to COPD, particularly those with α 1-antitrypsin deficiency ( AATD). It is predominantly caused by inhaled toxins (e.g., tobacco smoke or air pollution). Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is characterized by chronic respiratory symptoms resulting from airflow obstruction and alveolar gas exchange abnormalities.

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